Iranian Studies

Abstract The present study examines the multifaceted role of wages and religious offerings in consolidating and reinforcing political authority within the Achaemenid Empire, with particular emphasis on the ancient documentary evidence preserved in the Persepolis Fortification Tablets. The primary objective of this research is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the mechanisms through which ritual and economic resources were distributed among social, administrative, and religious groups, and to evaluate the impact of these practices on the legitimacy, stability, and durability of the imperial power structure. The research data consist of the extensive corpus of Persepolis Fortification Tablets, which have been meticulously examined and systematically coded using a rigorous documentary analysis methodology. The findings reveal that the system of payments, rations, and ritual allocations functioned not merely as an economic mechanism but also as a strategic instrument for strengthening the loyalty, cooperation, and compliance of court officials, priests, and local elites throughout the empire. Furthermore, a detailed geographical and structural analysis of these documents demonstrates a deliberate and clear correlation between the central authority in Persepolis and the distribution of wages in subordinate regions, reflecting a sophisticated approach to administrative control and political governance. The results highlight the critical role of religious offerings and state-administered wages as essential tools employed by the Achaemenids to legitimize their rule, stabilize social hierarchies, and maintain imperial cohesion. By providing new insights into the interplay between economic, ritual, and political dimensions, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the organizational and ideological foundations of Achaemenid imperial power and offers a valuable perspective for reevaluating the empire’s economic and religious–political structures

Abstract As one of the most significant Gnostic movements of late antiquity, Manichaeism emerged from the cultural and religious context of Iran. One of the most debated issues in Manichaean studies concerns the extent and nature of this religion's indebtedness to Zurvanism, an influential current within Sasanian Zoroastrianism. Adopting a comparative approach, this study demonstrates that Manichaeism's encounter with Zurvanism transcended mere borrowing, evolving into conceptual interaction and ultimately cosmological opposition.The central question addresses the extent of Zurvanian elements in Manichaeism and how this conceptual engagement led to cosmological confrontation between the two systems. Employing a descriptive-analytical method, this research draws upon Manichaean texts (including the Kephalaia and hymns), Pahlavi sources (such as the Bundahishn and Ardā Wirāz Nāmag), and historical accounts.Findings indicate that while Manichaeans adopted the concept of "Zurvan" as the god of boundless time, they fundamentally transformed its function. In Zurvanism, Zurvan holds a primordial and exalted position; in Manichaeism, however, he becomes symbol of the material world and imprisoning time—synonymous with the dark hell. This conceptual shift reveals a profound cosmological opposition: Manichaeism regards the world and time as absolute evil from which liberation is sought, whereas Zurvanism attempts to explain the origin of evil within a framework tending toward monotheism.Thus, Manichaeism appropriated Zurvanian myths to construct a new adversary for the God of Light, redefining Zurvan as embodiment of darkness and captivity. This study contributes significantly to understanding pre-Islamic Iranian religious interactions and their divergent approaches to the fundamental problems of evil and time. 

Abstract In January 2001, a common surge within the southeastern area of Kerman, Iran, uncovered an obscure culture in Jiroft. The surge revealed artifacts that each uncover a covered up corner of the obscure culture of the people of Jiroft within the third thousand years BC. In spite of the disclosure of an obscure composing framework in Jiroft culture, the pictures utilized on the artifacts of this culture are of evident significance. Distinctive human, plant, creature, structural, and human-animal images are apparent on these artifacts. To get it and studied the existing images, the as it were way out is to examined the iconographic and iconological themes of the themes and compare these themes with the neighboring civilizations of the culture. Iconographic consider makes it conceivable to get to the scholarly substance, myths, and stories related to the themes. In differentiate, iconological consider will lead to an understanding of the genuine foundation of the discovered motifs in terms of time and put within the center of the society in address. One of the foremost common images utilized in Jiroft vessels is the motif of the fight of the hawk and the wind. The predominance of this picture within the craftsmanship of the obscure culture of Jiroft certainly contains covered up concepts that the Jiroft craftsman tries. In the research, reference has been made to the analysis of the images of the eagle and the snake in religious and literary texts such as Bondahesh and Kalīla wa Dimna. On the other hand, through a comparative study, the explanation of the said icon in neighboring civilizations of the Jiroft in the third millennium BC has been pointed out. The show inquire about, based on library assets and descriptive-analytical strategies, serious to look at this not-so-well-known culture through the investigation and translation of the theme in address

Abstract The structure of Qaleh Dokhtar (also known as Qiz Qal'eh or Qiz Qal'eh) is a mountain fortress situated 25 kilometers southwest of Sāveh, atop a solitary mountain in the Hendeš mountain range. Numerous studies have been conducted on the origins and function of this structure, yet they have yielded divergent conclusions. Some researchers attribute the construction of Qaleh Dokhtar to the Sasanian period, positing its function as a temple dedicated to the goddess Anāhitā. Others have identified it as a fortress from the Islamic Middle Ages, associated with the Ismaili sect. The lack of substantial evidence and documentation from these researchers has created a greater need for meticulous examination of primary written sources, the historical-geography of Sāveh, and the existing studies of the monument. This research is predicated on the hypothesis that Qaleh Dokhtar, owing to its name, its strategic location, references in historical sources, its connection to specific natural features and phenomena, and archaeological findings, was constructed during the Sasanian period and functioned as a shrine to the goddess Nahid (Anāhitā).The methodology employed in this study is historical-analytical, based on field observations, architectural evidence, archaeological excavations, and a thorough review of library sources. The research and analysis conducted suggest that while the foundations of Qaleh Dokhtar may have been laid in the Sasanian period as a place of worship, the absence of definitive material evidence from that era, combined with the discovery of artifacts proving the structure's use during the Islamic Middle Ages and its clear association with other regional fortresses, makes its identification as an Ismaili castle a more plausible and acceptable conclusion

Abstract Iranian myths are among the most fundamental components of national identity, which have undergone continuous reinterpretation in connection with political and religious transformations. Within this context, the Seljuk period represents a decisive juncture for readjusting the relationship between the Iranian mythical heritage and Islamic historiography, due to the establishment of Turkic rule, the rise of Ash'ari theological orthodoxy, and the continuity of the Iranian bureaucratic institution (divan). Employing a descriptive-analytical and comparative approach based on the concept of "Cultural Memory," the present study examines the treatment of Iranian myths in three pivotal texts: Tarikh-e Sistan, Farsnama, and Mujmal al-Tawarikh wa al-Qisas. The findings indicate that during this period, myth underwent a "functional displacement" and was reproduced through three distinct approaches: 1) The Syncretic Approach, aiming at the re-centering of sacred geography; 2) The Iranocentric Approach, serving as a model for political ethics and the restraint of power; and 3) The Rational-Critical Approach, which, through epistemic distancing, redefines myth as a written heritage and an "object of study."The overall conclusion suggests that myth did not decline during the Seljuk era; rather, by transforming from a "sacred belief" into an "identity strategy," it provided the necessary infrastructure for Iran’s historical continuity and its transmission to subsequent periods

Abstract The present article examines the structural and content-based aspects of a certification document related to a siyurghal decree issued by Tīmūr Gurkānī in favor of Mīr Ikhtiār al-Dīn Ḥasan al-Ṭabāṭabāʾī al-Bihbahānī. This taṣdīq-nāmeh of a Siyurghal Decree, written in the late Zand period (probably between 1201–1206 AH), is the only known document that extensively addresses not the original siyurghal decree issued by Tīmūr Gurkānī, but rather the formal confirmation of such a decree. The primary aim of this study is to conduct a thorough analysis of the internal and external elements of the taṣdīq-nāmeh of a Siyurghal Decree, examine the social status of the family that received the siyurghal, evaluate its historical authenticity, and compare it to existing examples of siyurghal decrees from various historical periods. This comparative analysis reveals that, unlike the original siyurghal decrees, such taṣdīq-nāmeh of a Siyurghal Decree were generally informal, non-bureaucratic documents whose legitimacy relied on the seals and testimonies of local elders, notables, and dignitaries. Accordingly, the document under examination stands as a unique case for identifying and evaluating taṣdīq-nāmeh of a Siyurghal Decree, particularly from the late Zand era. The authors in the present article have attempted, by structurally and content-wise examining the existing taṣdīq-nāmeh of a Siyurghal Decree and comparing it with the structure and content of Siurghal decrees based on previously published examples of Siurghal decrees, to identify the similarities and differences between these two types of documents and to distinguish their various aspects from one another

Abstract The techniques employed in the engraving of images on Mesopotamian cylinder seals possess novel and unprecedented characteristics. These seals contain valuable information about the rituals, beliefs, and intellectual structures of the societies of that period. With the appearance of images of composite creatures from the third millennium BCE, a fundamental transformation occurred in the depiction of these beings particularly in the form of gods, goddesses, and supernatural entities in Mesopotamian civilization. It appears that the origins of many composite creatures in various later mythological, historical, and geographical narratives are rooted in these early images. The aim of this research is a comparative study of the engraved images on Mesopotamian cylinder seals and the shared visual elements, in terms of form and content, found in the depictions of composite creatures in the lithographic edition of Zakariya Qazvini’s Ajāib al-Makhlūqāt. The research question asks what formal and content-related relationship exists between the depictions of composite creatures in Qazvini’s book and the images on Mesopotamian cylinder seals. Using a descriptive–analytical approach and focusing on identifying the origins and visual roots of these depictions, the present study examines the formal and content-related similarities between these two sets of images through comparative analysis. Based on the visual findings of this study, the imagery on cylinder seals of the Mesopotamian civilization gradually persisted in subsequent civilizations within the same geographical region, as well as in neighboring ones. This cultural continuity is observed during the Qajar era in the form of legends and myths in the lithographed book Ajāib al-Makhlūqāt. By comparing these images in terms of both form and content, it appears that the depictions of composite creatures in this book have their roots in the motifs found on Mesopotamian cylinder seals